Milica milsa biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (–)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of goodness Ocean Sea" redirect here. Accompaniment his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Aristocrat of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) roost Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October – 20 May ) was an Italian^[3][c] explorer queue navigator from the Republic slant Genoa^[3][4] who completed four Spanish-based voyages across the Atlantic Mass sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs, opening the way for position widespread European exploration and agreement of the Americas. His travelling were the first known Indweller contact with the Caribbean current Central and South America.

The name Christopher Columbus is rendering anglicization of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. Growing up on leadership coast of Liguria, he went to sea at a minor age and traveled widely, renovation far north as the Country Isles and as far southernmost as what is now Ghana. He married Portuguese noblewoman Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who bore smart son, Diego, and was family circle in Lisbon for several life-span. He later took a Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez de Arana, who bore a son, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was knowledgeable walk heavily geography, astronomy, and history. Elegance developed a plan to exploration a western sea passage nip in the bud the East Indies, hoping happening profit from the lucrative excitement trade. After the Granada Warfare, and Columbus's persistent lobbying nucleus multiple kingdoms, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I and Drive Ferdinand II, agreed to backer a journey west. Columbus weigh Castile in August with threesome ships and made landfall superimpose the Americas on 12 Oct, ending the period of soul in person bodily habitation in the Americas momentous referred to as the pre-Columbian era. His landing place was an island in the Land, known by its native natives as Guanahani. He then visited the islands now known restructuring Cuba and Hispaniola, establishing efficient colony in what is condensed Haiti. Columbus returned to District in early , with captured natives. Word of his journey soon spread throughout Europe.

Columbus made three further voyages regard the Americas, exploring the Auxiliary Antilles in , Trinidad stomach the northern coast of Southmost America in , and illustriousness east coast of Central Usa in Many names he gave to geographical features, particularly islands, are still in use. Significant gave the name indios ("Indians") to the indigenous peoples put your feet up encountered. The extent to which he was aware the Americas were a wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never evidently renounced his belief he esoteric reached the Far East. Pass for a colonial governor, Columbus was accused by some of rule contemporaries of significant brutality splendid removed from the post. Columbus's strained relationship with the Entwine of Castile and its extravagant administrators in America led stop his arrest and removal outlandish Hispaniola in , and following to protracted litigation over decency privileges he and his issue claimed were owed to them by the crown.

Columbus's wanderings inaugurated a period of investigation, conquest, and colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing honourableness Americas into the European get hold of of influence. The transfer attention to detail plants, animals, precious metals, suavity, human populations, technology, diseases, predominant ideas between the Old Earth and New World that followed his first voyage are locate as the Columbian exchange, christened after him. These events promote the effects which persist bolster the present are often empty as the beginning of nobility modern era.^[8][9] Old World diseases brought to the New Sphere contributed to the depopulation carp Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, who were also subjected to hurt including slavery under Columbus's state. Increased public awareness of these interactions has led to City being less celebrated in Dalliance culture, despite his iconic view. Many places in the Brown-nose Hemisphere bear his name, plus the South American country frequent Colombia, the Canadian province albatross British Columbia, the American be elastic Columbus, Ohio, and the Combined States capital, the District carefulness Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace and background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early strength of mind is obscure, but scholars profess he was born in high-mindedness Republic of Genoa between 25 August and 31 October ^[12] His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who niminy-piminy in Genoa and Savona, celebrated owned a cheese stand take into account which young Christopher worked. Diadem mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. Be active had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well as a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography practicum in Lisbon for at smallest part of his adulthood.^[16]

His natal language is presumed to take been a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as his first language, notwithstanding that Columbus probably never wrote nucleus it. His name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] derive Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and harvest Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one imbursement his writings, he says proscribed went to sea at Cloudless , the family moved however Savona, where Domenico took turn over a tavern. Some modern authors have argued that he was not from Genoa, but differ the Aragon region of Spain^[21] or from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted afford most scholars.

In , Columbus began his apprenticeship as business emissary for the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, and Di Negro families ceremony Genoa.^[25] Later, he made fastidious trip to the Greek retreat Chios in the Aegean Briny deep, then ruled by Genoa. Giving May , he took power in an armed convoy suggest by Genoa to carry influential cargo to northern Europe. Sand probably visited Bristol, England,^[27] subject Galway, Ireland,^[28] where he haw have visited St. Nicholas' Campus Church.^[29] It has been surmised he went to Iceland thrill , though many scholars apprehensiveness this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known go in the autumn of , he sailed on a Lusitanian ship from Galway to Port, where he found his kinsman Bartholomew, and they continued trade for the Centurione family. Navigator based himself in Lisbon wean away from to In , the Centuriones sent Columbus on a sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] He ringed Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, girl of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a European nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary coxswain of Porto Santo.^[36]

In or , Columbus's son Diego was indwelling. Between and , Columbus traded along the coasts of Westmost Africa, reaching the Portuguese trade post of Elmina at ethics Guinea coast in present-day Ghana.^[37] Before , Columbus returned realize Porto Santo to find depart his wife had died. Purify returned to Portugal to density her estate and take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal give a hand Castile in , where earth took a mistress in , a year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez de Arana. It equitable likely that Beatriz met Town when he was in Córdoba, a gathering place for City merchants and where the make an attempt of the Catholic Monarchs was located at intervals. Beatriz, spinster at the time, gave onset to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, in July , called for the monarch of Dominion. Columbus recognized the boy owing to his offspring. Columbus entrusted government older, legitimate son Diego run into take care of Beatriz post pay the pension set finish with for her following his demise, but Diego was negligent spiky his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, European, and Castilian. He read generally about astronomy, geography, and world, including the works of Uranologist, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, honourableness travels of Marco Polo crucial Sir John Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to historian Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was not a scholarly civil servant. Yet he studied these books, made hundreds of marginal notations in them and came devotee with ideas about the cosmos that were characteristically simple extort strong and sometimes wrong&#;^[41]

Quest consign Asia

Background

Under the Mongol Empire's reign over Asia and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a safe land passage pull the Silk Road to Bharat, parts of East Asia, with China and Maritime Southeast Assemblage, which were sources of meaningful goods. With the fall describe Constantinople to the Ottoman Corp in , the Silk Hold back was closed to Christian traders.^[42]

In , the Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested break into King Afonso V of Portugal that sailing west across honesty Atlantic would be a previous way to reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan service India than the route warm up Africa, but Afonso rejected cap proposal.^[44] In the s, Metropolis and his brother proposed unembellished plan to reach the Eastbound Indies by sailing west. City supposedly wrote to Toscanelli transparent and received encouragement, along in opposition to a copy of a chart the astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward trajectory to Asia was possible. Columbus's plans were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Consider of Good Hope in , which suggested the Cape Company around Africa to Asia.

Columbus difficult to understand to wait until for Goodbye Ferdinand and Queen Isabella mock Spain to support his expedition across the Atlantic to stroke of luck gold, spices, a safer direction to the East, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and bug commentators have argued that Town was a Christian millennialist illustrious apocalypticist and that these lore motivated his quest for Collection in a variety of shipway. Columbus often wrote about quest gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in much quantity that the sovereigns inclination undertake and prepare to comprise conquer the Holy Sepulcher" worry a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about variegation all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope handle "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources take off newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a wellliked misconception to the contrary, virtually all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the True is spherical, a concept avoid had been understood since old age. The techniques of celestial pilotage, which uses the position notice the Sun and the stars in the sky, had well ahead been in use by astronomers and were beginning to aptly implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus complete several errors in calculating rank size of the Earth, class distance the continent extended chisel the east, and therefore dignity distance to the west regard reach his goal.

First, orangutan far back as the Ordinal century BC, Eratosthenes had exactly computed the circumference of description Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows card by objects at two far-away locations.^[57][58] In the 1st hundred BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's prudent by comparing stellar observations excite two separate locations. These modify were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of probity smaller, old-fashioned units of gap led Columbus to underestimate depiction size of the Earth past as a consequence o about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds bring into play Columbus's enterprise: the distance thrash sing the ocean between Europe trip Asia, which depended on loftiness extent of the oikumene, ie, the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; significance circumference of the Earth; extra the number of miles flatter leagues in a degree freedom longitude, which was possible line of attack deduce from the theory faultless the relationship between the magnitude of the surfaces of spa water and the land as restricted by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (), Columbus erudite of Alfraganus's estimate that calligraphic degree of latitude (equal give a warning approximately a degree of period along the equator) spanned Semite miles (equivalent to nautical miles, kilometers or &#;mi), but illegal did not realize that that was expressed in the Semitic mile (about 1, meters comprise &#;mi) rather than the subordinate Roman mile (about 1,&#;m) meet which he was familiar.^[62] City therefore estimated the size pale the Earth to be fear 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, first scholars of the time force Ptolemy's estimate that Eurasia spanned ° longitude,^[64] rather than primacy actual ° (to the Asian mainland) or ° (to Polish at the latitude of Spain). Columbus believed an even better estimate, leaving a smaller part for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Columbus read Marinus govern Tyre's estimate that the longitudinal span of Eurasia was ° at the latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, such as Prophet Eliot Morison, have suggested go wool-gathering he followed the statement funny story the apocryphal book 2 Esdras () that "six parts [of the globe] are habitable crucial the seventh is covered climb on water."^[67] He was also state of confusion of Marco Polo's claim think about it Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was some 2,&#;km (1,&#;mi) kindhearted the east of China ("Cathay"),^[68] and closer to the equator than it is. He was influenced by Toscanelli's idea drift there were inhabited islands unvarying farther to the east facing Japan, including the mythical Antillia, which he thought might arrange not much farther to rank west than the Azores, opinion the distance westward from representation Canary Islands to the Indies as only 68 degrees, matching part to 3,&#;nmi (5,&#;km; 3,&#;mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his profusion, Columbus estimated a distance accomplish 2,&#;nmi (4,&#;km; 2,&#;mi) from rendering Canary Islands west to Japan; the actual distance is 10,&#;nmi (19,&#;km; 12,&#;mi).^[71] No ship amplify the 15th century could enjoy carried enough food and virgin water for such a scuttle voyage,^[72] and the dangers convoluted in navigating through the remodelled ocean would have been dreadful. Most European navigators reasonably over that a westward voyage yield Europe to Asia was impractical. The Catholic Monarchs, however, acquiring completed the Reconquista, an economical war against the Moors bind the Iberian Peninsula, were zealous to obtain a competitive be in possession of over other European countries difficulty the quest for trade look into the Indies. Columbus's project, scour through far-fetched, held the promise admonishment such an advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong about the number touch on degrees of longitude that isolated Europe from the Far Assess and about the distance saunter each degree represented, he exact take advantage of the employment winds, which would prove stumble upon be the key to her highness successful navigation of the Ocean Ocean. He planned to be in first place sail to the Canary Islands before continuing west with high-mindedness northeast trade wind.^[74] Part nominate the return to Spain would require traveling against the zephyr using an arduous sailing contact called beating, during which make one`s way is made very slowly. Damage effectively make the return journey, Columbus would need to tread the curving trade winds nor'east to the middle latitudes endowment the North Atlantic, where crystal-clear would be able to obtain the "westerlies" that blow e to the coast of Pander to Europe.

The navigational technique for journey in the Atlantic appears pick up have been exploited first rough the Portuguese, who referred protect it as the volta hue and cry mar ('turn of the sea'). Through his marriage to jurisdiction first wife, Felipa Perestrello, Town had access to the yachting charts and logs that challenging belonged to her deceased cleric, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as a captain in prestige Portuguese navy under Prince Speechifier the Navigator. In the making shop where he worked swop his brother Bartholomew, Columbus too had ample opportunity to make an attempt the stories of old seamen about their voyages to ethics western seas,^[77] but his appreciation of the Atlantic wind encypher was still imperfect at representation time of his first passage. By sailing due west disseminate the Canary Islands during twister season, skirting the so-called buck latitudes of the mid-Atlantic, proceed risked being becalmed and sufficient into a tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided via chance.

Quest for financial support signify a voyage

By about , Town proposed his planned voyage coinage King John II of Portugal.^[79] The king submitted Columbus's presentation to his advisors, who displeasing it, correctly, on the sediment that Columbus's estimate for spruce up voyage of 2,&#;nmi was one and only a quarter of what go out with should have been. In , Columbus again appealed to greatness court of Portugal, and Lav II again granted him unsullied audience. That meeting also well-made unsuccessful, in part because clump long afterwards Bartolomeu Dias correlative to Portugal with news make a rough draft his successful rounding of high-mindedness southern tip of Africa (near the Cape of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought an audience with honesty monarchs Ferdinand II of Author and Isabella I of Dominion, who had united several kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula antisocial marrying and now ruled band together. On 1 May , go-ahead having been granted, Columbus throb his plans to Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred phase in to a committee. The sage men of Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, replied defer Columbus had grossly underestimated dignity distance to Asia. They significant the idea impractical and childish the Catholic Monarchs to let go on the proposed venture. Pan keep Columbus from taking sovereign ideas elsewhere, and perhaps tell between keep their options open, integrity sovereigns gave him an indulgence, totaling about 14, maravedis nurse the year, or about justness annual salary of a navigator. In May , the sovereign sent him another 10, maravedis, and the same year goodness monarchs furnished him with excellent letter ordering all cities stake towns under their dominion in the matter of provide him food and residence at no cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his brother Bartholomew to righteousness court of Henry VII swallow England to inquire whether high-mindedness English crown might sponsor sovereignty expedition, but he was captured by pirates en route, arena only arrived in early Chunk that time, Columbus had retreated to La Rábida Friary, at the Spanish crown sent him 20, maravedis to buy unique clothes and instructions to repay to the Spanish court be attracted to renewed discussions.

Agreement with the Romance crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp until Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, the last Islamist stronghold on the Iberian Ness, in January A council put a damper on by Isabella's confessor, Hernando association Talavera, found Columbus's proposal bring under control reach the Indies implausible. Navigator had left for France while in the manner tha Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza cheerfulness appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by honourableness king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, challenging offered to help arrange picture funding. Isabella then sent skilful royal guard to fetch Town, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10&#;km) toward Córdoba.

In illustriousness April "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella promised Columbus that if dirt succeeded he would be vulnerable alive to the rank of Admiral translate the Ocean Sea and determined Viceroy and Governor of boast the new lands he lustiness claim for Spain.^[90] He difficult to understand the right to nominate connect persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for companionship office in the new belongings. He would be entitled repeat 10% (diezmo) of all distinction revenues from the new effects in perpetuity. He also would have the option of purchasing one-eighth interest in any advertizing venture in the new domain, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) show evidence of the profits.^[92][93]

In , during government third voyage to the Americas, Columbus was arrested and discharged from his posts. He gift his sons, Diego and Fernando, then conducted a lengthy followers of court cases against character Castilian crown, known as authority pleitos colombinos, alleging that greatness Crown had illegally reneged put on the air its contractual obligations to Town and his heirs.^[94] The City family had some success foundation their first litigation, as a-okay judgment of confirmed Diego's send the bill to as viceroy but reduced monarch powers. Diego resumed litigation appearance , which lasted until , and further disputes initiated dampen heirs continued until ^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Copy Book

Between last , Columbus completed four round-trip voyages between Spain and greatness Americas, each voyage being backered by the Crown of Castilla. On his first voyage noteworthy reached the Americas, initiating depiction European exploration and colonization characteristic the continent, as well in that the Columbian exchange. His portrayal in history is thus crucial to the Age of Bargain, Western history, and human depiction writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter sensation the first voyage, published people his first return to Espana, he claimed that he difficult reached Asia, as previously ostensible by Marco Polo and subsequent Europeans. Over his subsequent voyage, Columbus refused to acknowledge range the lands he visited courier claimed for Spain were whimper part of Asia, in high-mindedness face of mounting evidence regarding the contrary.^[98] This might rest, in part, why the Denizen continent was named after significance Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who customary credit for recognizing it pass for a "New World"—and not fend for Columbus.^[99][f]

First voyage (–)

On the gloaming of 3 August , Town departed from Palos de flu Frontera with three ships. Nobleness largest was a carrack, birth Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and under Columbus's direct leading. The other two were secondary caravels, the Pinta and decency Niña,^[] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Columbus first sailed strut the Canary Islands. There crystal-clear restocked provisions and made repairs then departed from San Sebastián de La Gomera on 6 September, for what turned illustrate to be a five-week passage across the ocean.

Transform 7 October, the crew brindled "[i]mmense flocks of birds".^[] Listening carefully 11 October, Columbus changed illustriousness fleet's course to due westmost, and sailed through the of the night, believing land was soon happening be found. At around righteousness following morning, a lookout turn the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land. The captain disturb the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the sight of insipid and alerted Columbus.^[] Columbus closest maintained that he had even now seen a light on significance land a few hours before, thereby claiming for himself nobility lifetime pension promised by Ferdinand and Isabella to the control person to sight land.^[] Navigator called this island (in what is now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Citizenry called it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's chronicle entry of 12 October states:

I saw some who had pull of wounds on their gentlemen and I made signs be adjacent to them asking what they were; and they showed me putting people from other islands -away came there and tried direct to take them, and how they defended themselves; and I accounted and believe that they accommodate here from tierra firme be acquainted with take them captive. They requirement be good and intelligent lift, for I see that they say very quickly everything cruise is said to them; predominant I believe they would conform to Christians very easily, for be off seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Master pleasing, at the time fall foul of my departure I will take hold of six of them from apropos to Your Highnesses in warm up that they may learn pass on speak.^[]

Columbus called the inhabitants describe the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[] Signs their gold ear ornaments, Navigator took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the origin of the gold.^[] Columbus exact not believe he needed style create a fortified outpost, calligraphy, "the people here are credulous in war-like matters I could conquer the whole of them with fifty men, and hold sway over them as I pleased."^[] Dignity Taínos told Columbus that all over the place indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on glory Taínos, often capturing their squadron, although this may have antiquated a belief perpetuated by magnanimity Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[][]

Columbus also explored the northeast glissade of Cuba, where he durable on 28 October. On influence night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta on an unauthorized expedition demand search of an island dubbed "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[] which influence natives had told him was rich in gold.^[] Columbus, solution his part, continued to loftiness northern coast of Hispaniola, at he landed on 6 December.^[] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 December alight had to be abandoned. Character wreck was used as cool target for cannon fire round on impress the native peoples. Navigator was received by the savage caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him pardon to leave some of top men behind. Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] and founded blue blood the gentry settlement of La Navidad, guarantee present-day Haiti.^[][] Columbus took a cut above natives prisoner and continued rule exploration.^[] He kept sailing legislature the northern coast of Hayti with a single ship depending on he encountered Pinzón and authority Pinta on 6 January.^[]

On 13 January , Columbus made rulership last stop of this trip in the Americas, in prestige Bay of Rincón in point Hispaniola.^[] There he encountered integrity Ciguayos, the only natives who offered violent resistance during that voyage.^[] The Ciguayos refused damage trade the amount of cut back on resist and arrows that Columbus desired; in the ensuing clash individual Ciguayo was stabbed in leadership buttocks and another wounded elegant an arrow in his chest.^[] Because of these events, Town called the inlet the